Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation, 600 to 300 BCE

The earliest Buddhist works are the Tripitaka: the Sutta Pitaka, held to contain what the Buddha himself said, and the Vinaya Pitaka, rules for monks and nuns with the Pratimoksha.
The Pratimoksha is a list of transgressions and their atonement, while the Abhidhamma Pitaka is a later, thorough systematisation of the Sutta Pitaka's teachings through lists, summaries, and questions and answers.
The Pitakas are divided into books called Nikayas, many in Pali; the Anguttara Nikaya lists the sixteen mahajanapadas, and the Digha, Majjhima and other texts refer to kings, cities, social groups, trade and religious debates.
The Jatakas, stories of the Buddha's previous births compiled later, describe urban life, merchants, professions, social conditions and political centres.
The Therigatha, songs of Buddhist nuns beside the Theragatha of monks, describes the experience of women in renunciation.
Jain texts, collectively the Siddhanta or Agama, among them the Bhagavati Sutra and the Parishishtaparvan, are important for Mahavira, the republican clans, eastern India and the intellectual climate.
Brahmanical sources are the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads, the Upanishads being especially important for philosophy at the end of the Vedic age.
The Dharmasutras are the earliest manuals of law, duty and custom (dharma), and the Grihyasutras give guidelines on domestic ritual for householders.
The epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata, and the Puranas, 18 Mahapuranas and many Upapuranas, are later but hold material on dynasties, regions, kings and political memory.
Panini, a grammarian of Gandhara who studied at Taxila, wrote the Ashtadhyayi in the fifth to fourth century BCE, a grammar that also deals with places, people, customs, coins, weights and measures.
Archaeology adds Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), a fine, glossy pottery of urban growth and urban elite culture, along with excavated urban sites.
Iron tools show forest clearance, agricultural expansion and improved productivity, while punch marked coins show monetisation, trade and exchange.

The TripitakaTap to enlarge

The earliest Buddhist works: three Pitakas, divided into books called Nikayas, with the Anguttara Nikaya listing the sixteen mahajanapadas.Source: Theme 4 handout

Pottery cultures of ancient India

About 5500 to 2600 BCE
Pre Harappan: black on red ware with simple geometric patterns, handmade and kiln fired; the Indus valley and surrounding regions
About 2600 to 1900 BCE
Harappan: fine wheel made pottery, often red with black painted designs; the Indus valley sites of present day Pakistan and northwest India
About 2000 to 1500 BCE
Ochre Coloured Pottery: ochre or light red pottery, often taken as a precursor of the Black and Red Ware; mainly the Gangetic plains
About 1300 to 900 BCE
Black and Red Ware: distinctive black and red pottery with geometric designs, often in white; spread across the subcontinent
About 1200 to 600 BCE
Painted Grey Ware: fine grey pottery painted with black geometric patterns; northwestern India and the Gangetic plain, often overlapping the early Vedic period
About 700 to 200 BCE
Northern Black Polished Ware: shiny, black, almost metallic pottery from a specific firing process; the Gangetic plains and later wider, with urban centres and the rise of major cities

Each pottery culture dates a span of the past and marks a region, so one layer of pots places a site in time and space.Source: Theme 1 handout, Pottery Culture of Ancient India

The rulers of Magadha, Bimbisara, Ajatashatru and later Mahapadma Nanda, are taken up in the next theme, the rise of Magadha.
Udayana of Vatsa is the hero of three romantic dramas written later, Bhasa's Svapnavasavadattam, and Harsha's Ratnavali and Priyadarshika.

Prasenajit
king
An important ruler of Kosala.
Udayana
king
Ruler of Vatsa, and hero of three later romantic dramas: Bhasa's Svapnavasavadattam, and Harsha's Ratnavali and Priyadarshika.
Pradyota
king
Ruler of Avanti.
Yudhishthila
king
A ruler of Kuru, said to be from the family of Yudhishthira.
Shishupala
king
King of Chedi, mentioned in the Mahabharata.
Panini
grammarian
Author of the Ashtadhyayi, of the fifth to fourth century BCE; from the Gandhara region, he studied at Taxila.

A janapada, literally the foothold of a people, marks the shift from tribal identity to territorial political units in early India.
By the sixth century BCE some janapadas had grown into large and powerful states, the mahajanapadas, and the Anguttara Nikaya lists sixteen of them.
Territorial states replaced older tribal structures and kingship grew stronger, but some republics or oligarchic polities, the gana sanghas, survived beside the kingdoms.
The Vajji confederacy of eight clans, in which the Licchavis and Videhas were most powerful, and the Mallas were such gana sanghas.
The four most powerful mahajanapadas were Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti, and of these Magadha became the strongest.
Magadha rose under the Haryanka, Shishunaga, Nanda and Maurya dynasties, conquered Anga and the Vajji, and laid the foundation of the first empire in India.
Kashi often had conflict with Kosala and was later merged into it, while Kosala itself was divided in two by the Saryu.
Kosala extended its power over the Shakyas of Kapilavastu, who ruled Lumbini, which is considered the birthplace of the Buddha.
Kuru was an important mahajanapada, but by the end of the Vedic age its relative importance among the states had declined.
Asmaka lay on the Godavari next to Mulaka, whose capital was Pratishthana, though some textbooks wrongly give Pratishthana as the capital of Asmaka.

The sixteen mahajanapadas

Mahajanapada	Capital	Modern location	Of note
Anga	Champa, near the Champa river	Eastern Bihar (Bhagalpur and Munger) and parts of West Bengal	Conquered by Magadha
Magadha	Rajagriha (Rajgir), later Pataliputra	South Bihar; the Ganga, Son, Punpun and Champa rivers	Haryanka, Shishunaga, Nanda and Maurya dynasties; the most powerful
Kashi	Varanasi, near the Ganga	Around Varanasi, bound by the Varuna and Asi rivers; eastern Uttar Pradesh	Often in conflict with Kosala, later merged into it
Kosala	Shravasti; Ayodhya or Saketa also important	Eastern Uttar Pradesh, divided in two by the Saryu	Power over the Shakyas of Kapilavastu; ruler Prasenajit
Vajji (Vrijji)	Vaishali	North Bihar	A confederacy of eight clans, a gana sangha; conquered by Magadha
Malla	Kusinara and Pava	Eastern Uttar Pradesh	A republican clan polity; the Buddha died at Kusinara
Chedi	Sothivati nagara	Bundelkhand, in Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh	King Shishupala, in the Mahabharata
Vatsa (Vamsa)	Kaushambi	Around Prayagraj and Kaushambi, Uttar Pradesh	Fine cotton textiles and trade; ruler Udayana
Kuru	Indraprastha	Delhi, Meerut and Haryana, near the upper Yamuna	Ruler Yudhishthila; importance declined by the end of the Vedic age
Panchala	Ahichchhatra and Kampilya; Kanyakubja (Kannauj) lay within it	Rohilkhand and the central Doab, western and central Uttar Pradesh	Divided in two by the Ganga
Matsya	Viratnagar, named after its founder	Rajasthan, the Jaipur and Alwar region
Surasena	Mathura	The Braj region, western Uttar Pradesh
Asmaka (Assaka)	Podana or Potali, Nandura tehsil, Maharashtra	On the Godavari, Maharashtra and Telangana	Next to Mulaka, whose capital was Pratishthana
Avanti	Ujjayini and Mahishmati	Malwa, western Madhya Pradesh	Ruler Pradyota; a major western kingdom in trade and politics
Gandhara	Taxila	Northwest Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan	Taxila a centre of learning, trade and cross cultural contact
Kamboja	None given	Far northwest: Hazara in Pakistan and Kafiristan in Afghanistan	A frontier state linked to trans regional movement and trade

Four were the most powerful, Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti, and two, Vajji and Malla, were republics.Source: Theme 4 handout

Society became more clearly stratified than in the earlier Vedic period, the four varnas remained important in ideology, and the varna system became rigid.
Several texts show a tussle for superiority between Brahmanas and Kshatriyas, which shows that the social order was contested, not fully settled.
Patriarchy grew stronger, with greater control of lineage and marriage, and with property and ritual becoming more male centred.

Agriculture expanded greatly in the Ganga valley, and the surplus supported rulers, priests, merchants, artisans and urban centres.
Urban growth is the most visible economic sign of the period, with cities serving as centres of trade, administration, religious activity and craft production.
The leading cities included Rajagriha, Pataliputra, Varanasi, Kaushambi, Vaishali, Ujjayini, Taxila, Shravasti, Mathura and Champa.
Crafts expanded, among them pottery, iron working, textiles, carpentry, ivory work, metal work and jewellery, and guilds (shreni) probably became more important in organising production.
Punch marked coins circulated, suggesting exchange beyond barter, commercial growth, market activity, and tax and payment systems becoming more regular.
Trade ran by river along the Ganga and Yamuna, and by land along the routes that linked the major cities of the period.
Northwest trade passed through Gandhara and Taxila, which connected India with Central Asia and Iran, while western trade ran through Avanti and Ujjayini.

Why cities returnedTap to enlarge

Iron cleared the forests, surplus fed the towns, and crafts, coins and trade grew with them.Source: Theme 4 handout

Even within the Vedic fold philosophy was evolving, as the Upanishads stressed the self (Atman), ultimate reality (Brahman), knowledge over ritual and inner truth over outer sacrifice.
The shramana traditions, renunciant or wandering seekers outside the orthodox Vedic ritual framework, rose in this age.
They included Buddhism, Jainism, the Ajivikas and other ascetic and philosophical traditions, all taken up in Theme 6.
Culture moved away from an exclusively Vedic ritual language, with Pali and Ardhamagadhi rising in religious use.
The age saw more philosophical debate, the spread of wandering teachers and the formation of monastic communities.

A punch marked coin of Magadha
Punch marked coins, early coins marked with symbols punched onto metal, show monetisation, trade and an exchange economy.
CNG Coins, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons
A karshapana of Magadha
The pana or karshapana was an early unit of currency, or coin.
Jean-Michel Moullec, CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons
Northern Black Polished Ware from Sonkh
Northern Black Polished Ware, a fine, glossy pottery, is associated with urban growth and urban elite culture.
Biswarup Ganguly, CC BY 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons
A terracotta plaque of the NBPW period, Ropar
This period is often associated with Northern Black Polished Ware, the pottery of the second urbanisation.
SpeakingArch, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons
Kaushambi, the Ghoshitaram monastery
Kaushambi, capital of Vatsa, was known for fine cotton textiles and active in trade.
Vinod26Jan, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons
The remains at Vaishali
Vaishali was the capital of the Vajji confederacy of eight clans, a gana sangha.
Suman kumar, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons
The Bhir Mound at Taxila
Taxila, capital of Gandhara, was a centre of learning, trade and cross cultural interaction.
Dawoodmajoka, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Janapada: Literally the foothold of a people, or the territory of a tribe or people: the shift from tribal identity to territorial political units.
Mahajanapada: A great janapada, a large territorial state; by the sixth century BCE some janapadas had grown into them, and the Anguttara Nikaya lists sixteen.
Gana sangha: A republic like, oligarchic polity, such as the Vajji confederacy of eight clans and the Mallas.
Second urbanisation: The return of towns and cities in the Ganga valley and beyond, about 600 to 300 BCE, after the Harappan cities.
Northern Black Polished Ware: NBPW: a fine, glossy pottery associated with urban growth, the second urbanisation and urban elite culture.
Punch marked coins: Early coins marked with symbols punched onto metal; they show monetisation, trade and an exchange economy.
Shreni: A guild or association of craftsmen or merchants.
Nigama: A market town or commercial settlement.
Kara: A tax or levy.
Bali: An offering or tribute; in a political context, a contribution to the ruler.
Bhaga: A share of produce, often the royal share of agrarian output.
Pana or karshapana: An early unit of currency, or coin.
Pratimoksha: A list of transgressions, and the atonement for them, in the Vinaya Pitaka.
Nikaya: A book of the Buddhist Pitakas, many written in Pali; the Sutta Pitaka contains five.
Jataka: A story of a previous birth of the Buddha.
Therigatha: Songs of Buddhist nuns, describing women's experience of renunciation; the Theragatha holds the songs of monks.
Agama: The Jain texts, collectively also called the Siddhanta.
Dharmasutra: One of the earliest manuals of Hindu law, duty and custom, known as dharma.
Grihyasutra: A text giving detailed guidelines on Vedic domestic rituals for householders.
Shramana: A renunciant or wandering seeker outside the orthodox Vedic ritual framework; the shramana traditions include Buddhism, Jainism and the Ajivikas.

Prelims

Try each before opening the answer; every question is also on the Prelims PYQs pages.

2026 · Q3

Consider the following statements:

I.Pali texts contain the first definite references to coins, e.g., kahapana, nikkha, kamsa, and kakanika.
II.The literary evidence from Pali texts is corroborated by archaeological evidence of punch-marked coins from many sites, most of them made of silver.

The above statements have been associated with which of the following?

1.Emergence of urban life
2.Transition to money economy

(a)1 only
(b)2 only
(c)Both 1 and 2UPSC key
(d)Neither 1 nor 2

Show answer and explanation

Both associations hold, so (c) is correct. The Pali canon belongs to the sixth century BCE onward, the period of the second urbanisation in the middle Ganga valley, and named coin denominations such as kahapana, nikkha, kamsa and kakanika appear in exactly the contexts of traders, guilds and towns, which is why the evidence is used to argue the emergence of urban life, so association 1 stands. The same evidence, corroborated by large hoards of silver punch-marked coins, shows exchange moving from barter and cattle wealth toward a standardised metallic medium, which is the transition to a money economy, so association 2 stands as well. (a) and (b) each drop one valid association, and (d) is untenable because the presence of denominated coinage is the standard evidence cited for both processes.

Moderate · Static · Ancient and Medieval History · Society, Trade and Economy

2025 · Q17

With reference to ancient India (600-322 BC), consider the following pairs :

I.Asmaka : Godavari
II.Kamboja : Vipas
III.Avanti : Mahanadi
IV.Kosala : Sarayu.

How many of the pairs given above are correctly matched?

(a)Only one
(b)Only twoUPSC key
(c)Only three
(d)All the four

Show answer and explanation

Pair I is correctly matched. Asmaka or Assaka was the southernmost of the sixteen mahajanapadas, located on the Godavari with its capital at Potana or Potali, and is the only one situated in the Deccan. Pair IV is correctly matched. Kosala lay in the region of eastern Uttar Pradesh with Shravasti as its capital, and the Sarayu flowed through it, dividing it into northern and southern halves. Pair III is incorrect. Avanti lay in western and central India, corresponding broadly to Malwa, with Ujjayini in the north and Mahishmati in the south; its associated rivers are the Kshipra and the Narmada, not the Mahanadi, which drains Chhattisgarh and Odisha far to the east. Pair II is treated as incorrect. Kamboja lay in the extreme north-west, beyond Gandhara in the region of the Hindu Kush, with Rajapura as its centre, whereas the Vipas or Beas flows through the Punjab plains. Two pairs therefore hold, giving (b). Options (c) and (d) require the Kamboja or Avanti pair to stand, and option (a) understates, since both Asmaka and Kosala are secure.

Difficult · Static · Ancient and Medieval History · Mahajanapadas to Gupta

2015 · Q39

Which of the following kingdoms were associated with the life of the Buddha?

1.Avanti
2.Gandhara
3.Kosala
4.Magadha

(a)1, 2 and 3
(b)2 and 3 only
(c)1, 3 and 4
(d)3 and 4 onlyUPSC key

Show answer and explanation

Kingdoms 3 and 4 are correct, so the official answer is (d). Kosala, ruled by Prasenajit, contained Sravasti, where the Buddha spent the greater number of his rain retreats at the Jetavana monastery given by Anathapindika, and Kapilavastu, his natal Sakya territory, lay within its sphere. Magadha under Bimbisara and then Ajatasatru contained Rajagriha, where the Venuvana was given to the order, Bodh Gaya, where he attained enlightenment, and Nalanda, and Bimbisara was among his earliest royal patrons. Gandhara, in the north west around Taxila and Pushkalavati, had no association with the Buddha's life; its Buddhist connection is later and artistic, the Gandhara school of sculpture arising under Kushana patronage some five centuries afterwards, which is exactly the confusion the item is built on. Avanti, with its capital at Ujjayini under Pradyota, was reached by Buddhism through the missionary work of the disciple Mahakatyayana rather than by the Buddha himself, who is not recorded as having travelled there. Elimination route: rejecting Gandhara removes options (a) and (b), after which the item turns on Avanti alone.

Moderate · Static · Ancient and Medieval History · Mahajanapadas to Gupta

2014 · Q25

Which of the following Kingdoms were associated with the life of the Buddha?

1.Avanti
2.Gandhara
3.Kosala
4.Magadha.

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

(a)1, 2 and 3
(b)2 and 4
(c)3 and 4 onlyUPSC key
(d)1, 3 and 4

Show answer and explanation

Statements 3 and 4 are correct and statements 1 and 2 are incorrect, so the official answer is (c). Kosala, with its capital at Sravasti and its king Prasenajit, was central to the Buddha's career: he passed the largest number of rain retreats at the Jetavana monastery there, given by the merchant Anathapindika, and he was born at Lumbini in the Sakya republic, which lay within the Kosalan sphere. Magadha, with Rajagriha as its capital under Bimbisara and then Ajatashatru, was the other principal field of his activity; the Bamboo Grove at Rajagriha was among the earliest monastic gifts, the enlightenment took place at Bodh Gaya in Magadhan territory, and the first council met at Rajagriha after the parinirvana.
Statement 2 is incorrect and is the easiest to reject. Gandhara lay in the far north-west around Taxila and Pushkalavati, well outside the middle Gangetic plain that bounded the Buddha's travels; Buddhism reached it later, under Ashoka and then the Kushanas, and its celebrated Buddhist art belongs to the first centuries of the common era.
Statement 1 is incorrect for the purposes of this key. Avanti, with its capital Ujjayini under Pradyota, lay in western Malwa outside the region the Buddha traversed, which extended broadly between Kosala, Kasi, Magadha, Vajji, Malla and Anga. The elimination route runs through Gandhara, whose rejection removes (a) and (b) and leaves the item to be decided on Avanti alone, between (c) and (d).

Moderate · Static · Ancient and Medieval History · Mahajanapadas to Gupta