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Ancient and medieval India
The history atlas: every theme on one timeline, each with a map of where it happened, its sources, the people and terms to know, the debates Mains asks about, and the questions UPSC has set on it.
The timeline
Themes that shared the same centuries sit one above the other. Open a coloured band to read the theme; a pale dashed band is still to come. Dates place the bands and are approximate.
The scale is indicative, not to measure. Later periods cover fewer years but we know far more about them, so they are deliberately stretched; earlier periods are compressed.
Political and material history
Religion, thought and culture
Theme 9 is coming and not yet placed on the timeline.
All themes
- 1Prehistoryabout 2 million years ago to 1000 BCE
- 2Harappan civilisation3300 to 1300 BCE
- 3Vedic age1500 to 600 BCE
- 4Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation600 to 300 BCE
- 5Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha6th century BCE to 321 BCE
- 6Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments6th century BCE onward
- 7Mauryan empire324 or 321 to 187 BCE
- 8India from 200 BCE to 300 CE200 BCE to 300 CE; 4 parts: 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela; 8b: The northwestern invasions: Indo Greeks, Shakas, Pahlavas, Kushanas and the Western Satraps; 8c: The Satavahanas; 8d: The Sangam age
- 9Theme 9to be placedcoming
- 10The Gupta empire319 to 550 CEcoming
- 11Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas250 to 600 CE; the Western Gangas run on to 1000coming
- 12Early medieval India550 to 1200 CE; 6 parts: 12a: Understanding early medieval India; 12b: North India: Harsha, Palas, Pratiharas; 12c: The Rajput kingdoms; 12d: The Deccan: Chalukyas to Yadavas; 12e: South India: Pallavas, Pandyas, Cholas; 12f: Bhakti in the south and beyond
- M1Nature of medieval India1200 to 1750 CEcoming
- M2Rajput polities and regional states700 to 1200 CEcoming
- M3South Indian states in the medieval period850 to 1350 CEcoming
- M4Delhi Sultanate1206 to 1526 CEcoming
- M5Regional states in medieval India1300 to 1550 CEcoming
- M6Vijayanagara and the Bahmani Sultanate1336 to 1646 CEcoming
- M7Mughal empire1526 to 1750 CEcoming
- M8Bhakti and Sufi movements600 to 1700 CEcoming
People
AbhinandananathaTirthankara
The fourth Tirthankara.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Ajatashatruking
Haryanka ruler of Magadha, 492 to 460 BCE; killed his father, convened the first Buddhist council and won Kashi and Vaishali.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Ajita Kesakambaliphilosopher
Sixth century BCE contemporary of the Buddha and a major forerunner of the Charvaka tradition.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
AjitanathaTirthankara
The second Tirthankara.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Alara Kalamateacher
A teacher under whom the Buddha first studied.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Alexander Cunninghamarchaeologist
An early figure in Indian archaeology and the first Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India; noticed Harappa in the 19th century, though its significance was not then understood.
Alexander III of Macedonking
Alexander the Great, 336 to 323 BCE, Sikander in Persian accounts; he overturned the Persian Empire and entered the Indian northwest in 327 to 326 BCE.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Ambhiking
Ruler of Taxila who did not fight Alexander but welcomed him with troops and elephants, hoping for support against Porus.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Anandadisciple
A major disciple of the Buddha.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Antiochusking
King of Syria, who sent an ambassador to Bindusara's court and refused to sell him a sophist.
Ashokaking
Mauryan emperor, 268 to 232 BCE; conquered Kalinga, turned from Bherighosha to Dhammaghosha, and speaks through his edicts as Devanampiya Piyadasi.
B. B. Lalarchaeologist
Among the Indian archaeologists who worked on the civilisation after independence.
B. K. Thapararchaeologist
Among the Indian archaeologists who worked on the civilisation after independence.
Bhadrabahumonk
The Jain monk with whom, in Jain tradition, Chandragupta went to Shravanabelagola.
Bimbisaraking
Haryanka ruler of Magadha, 544 to 492 BCE, contemporary of the Buddha and Mahavira; standing army and the first marriage alliances.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Bindusaraking
Son of Chandragupta, 297 to 273 BCE; Amitrochates to the Greeks, from Amitraghata, slayer of foes.
Brihadrathaking
The last Mauryan king, assassinated in 187 BCE by his general Pushyamitra Shunga.
Brihaspatiphilosopher
Traditionally revered as the founder of the Charvaka or Lokayata school.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Cambyses IIking
An Achaemenid ruler of Persia.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Chanakyascholar
Adviser of Chandragupta, traditionally the author of the Arthashastra.
Theme 7: Mauryan empireTheme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Chandragupta Mauryaking
Founder of the Mauryan empire, 324 or 321 to 297 BCE; ended Nanda rule, made the treaty with Seleucus, and in Jain tradition ended his life at Shravanabelagola.
Theme 7: Mauryan empireTheme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Charvakaphilosopher
A disciple of Brihaspati, or the philosopher who systematically set out the school's ideas.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Chellanaqueen
A Licchavi princess, wife of Bimbisara and mother of Ajatashatru.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Chetakachief
Head of the Licchavi clan ruling from Vaishali, and brother of Trishala.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Cyrus IIking
Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Darius Iking
Achaemenid ruler under whom Gandhara and the Indian borderlands entered the empire; defeated at Marathon in 490 BCE.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Daya Ram Sahniarchaeologist
Credited with the excavation of Harappa in 1921, a major turning point.
Dhana Nandaking
Nanda ruler with a very large army and oppressive taxes, defeated by Chandragupta Maurya.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Dhundibhissaramissionary
Named in the Mahavamsa among Ashoka's Buddhist missions.
Gautama Buddhateacher
Siddhartha Gautama of the Shakya clan, born at Lumbini; enlightened at Bodh Gaya, first sermon at Sarnath, died at Kushinagara.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Jivakaphysician
The physician Bimbisara sent to Pradyota of Avanti when he had jaundice.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
John Marshallarchaeologist
Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India who played a major role in announcing the discovery to the world.
Kalashokaking
Son of Shishunaga, who held the second Buddhist council at Vaishali.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Kassapagotamissionary
Named in the Mahavamsa among Ashoka's Buddhist missions.
Kosala Deviqueen
Daughter of the king of Kosala, sister of Prasenajit and a wife of Bimbisara.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Mahakashyapadisciple
A major disciple of the Buddha.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Mahanandinking
The last Shishunaga ruler, killed by Mahapadma Nanda.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Mahapadma Nandaking
Founder of the Nanda dynasty, who called himself ekarat, the sole sovereign.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Mahaprajapati Gautamiqueen
Stepmother and foster mother of the Buddha.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
MahaviraTirthankara
The 24th Tirthankara and great historical organiser of Jainism; born at Kundagrama near Vaishali, died at Pavapuri.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Majjhimamissionary
Named in the Mahavamsa among the Buddhist missions Ashoka sent after the third council.
Makkhali Gosalateacher
The most famous Ajivika teacher, a contemporary of the Buddha and Mahavira.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Mamulanarpoet
Sangam poet whose Akananuru may refer to a Mauryan southward expansion.
Megasthenesambassador
Greek ambassador of Seleucus Nikator at Pataliputra and author of the Indica.
Moggallanadisciple
A major disciple of the Buddha.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Nagadasakaking
The last Haryanka ruler, killed by his minister Shishunaga.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Paninigrammarian
Author of the Ashtadhyayi, of the fifth to fourth century BCE; from the Gandhara region, he studied at Taxila.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
ParshvanathaTirthankara
The 23rd Tirthankara, probably of the early first millennium BCE, whose ascetic tradition Mahavira inherited and expanded.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Porusking
Ruler between the Hydaspes and the Acesines who fought Alexander in 326 BCE, was defeated and was reinstated as satrap.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Prasenajitking
An important ruler of Kosala.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Pushyamitra Shungageneral
Brahmana general who assassinated Brihadratha, the last Maurya.
R. D. Banerjiarchaeologist
Excavated Mohenjodaro in 1922, confirming that Harappa was not an isolated settlement.
RishabhanathaTirthankara
The first Tirthankara, the earliest and most primordial teacher in Jain tradition.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Rudradamanking
His Junagadh inscription of 150 CE records the Sudarshana lake of the Mauryas.
S. R. Raoarchaeologist
Among the Indian archaeologists who worked on the civilisation after independence.
SambhavanathaTirthankara
The third Tirthankara.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Sariputtadisciple
A major disciple of the Buddha.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Seleucus Nikatorking
Held the eastern Seleucid territories; after war with Chandragupta about 305 BCE he ceded Baluchistan, eastern Afghanistan and the region west of the Indus.
Shishunagaking
Founder of the Shishunaga dynasty of Magadha, who destroyed the power of Avanti.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Shishupalaking
King of Chedi, mentioned in the Mahabharata.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Sudasking
King of the Bharata tribe who defeated a confederation of ten tribes on the banks of the Parushni in the Battle of Ten Kings.
Trishalaqueen
Mother of Mahavira and sister of Chetaka, the Licchavi chief.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Udayanaking
Ruler of Vatsa, and hero of three later romantic dramas: Bhasa's Svapnavasavadattam, and Harsha's Ratnavali and Priyadarshika.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Udayinking
Haryanka ruler of Magadha, 460 to 444 BCE, who moved the capital to Pataliputra.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Uddaka Ramaputtateacher
A teacher under whom the Buddha first studied.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Upalidisciple
A major disciple of the Buddha.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Vasisthapriest
An important priest associated with Sudas, and one of the priestly families of the Family Books.
Vishvamitraseer
A major seer associated in tradition with political conflict and patronage, and one of the priestly families of the Family Books.
Xerxes Iking
An Achaemenid ruler of Persia.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Yudhishthilaking
A ruler of Kuru, said to be from the family of Yudhishthira.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Terms
Achaemenid Empire
The Persian Empire relevant to Indian history, which rose in the sixth century BCE and became one of the largest of the ancient world.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Agama
The Jain texts, collectively also called the Siddhanta.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Ahimsa
Non violence, the central ethical principle of Jainism.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Anatman
No permanent self, also anatta; a major difference from many Upanishadic ideas.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Anekantavada
The Jain doctrine of many sided reality.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Anitya
Impermanence: everything changes.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Antavasayin
Literally living at the end: people, such as Chandalas and shvapakas, supposed to live on the margins of settlements.
Aparigraha
Non possession, non attachment.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Ashvamedha
The horse sacrifice, claiming unquestioned control over the area the royal horse ran through uninterrupted.
Astika
A school that accepts the authority of the Vedas; it does not simply mean theist.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Asuravijayin, lobhavijayin, dharmavijayin
The demonic conqueror who seizes and kills, the greedy one, and the righteous one satisfied with submission.
Ayas
A Rigvedic word that could mean copper, copper bronze, or metal in general; iron was later shyama or krishna ayas, the dark metal.
Bali
An offering or tribute; in a political context, a contribution to the ruler.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisationTheme 3: Vedic age
Bhaga
A share of produce, often the royal share of agrarian output.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisationTheme 7: Mauryan empire
Bherighosha and Dhammaghosha
Physical conquest and cultural conquest: after Kalinga, Ashoka turned from the first to the second.
Black and red ware
Distinctive black and red pottery with geometric designs, often in white, about 1300 to 900 BCE, spread across the subcontinent.
Brahman
Ultimate reality, the universal principle; not the same as the Brahmana varna.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Brahmana
Prose texts explaining rituals, showing the expansion of sacrificial religion and priestly authority.
Carnelian
A hard reddish orange semiprecious stone, worked at Harappan sites into beads that reached Mesopotamia.
Chalcolithic
The stone and copper age, roughly 3000 to 1000 BCE in many regions, when people used both stone and copper tools.
Citadel
The raised, often fortified part of a Harappan city, which may have held public buildings, ritual or storage structures, or elite functions.
Dakshina
The gift given to priests; land was never given in the Early Vedic age, but it was in the Later Vedic age.
Dasa and ahitaka
A slave, and a person pledged to a creditor when contracting a debt.
Devanampiya Piyadasi
The names Ashoka uses for himself in most of his inscriptions, known to be his from the Sri Lankan Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa.
Dhamma
Ashoka's moral law of ethical conduct and righteous living, broader than Buddhism.
Dharmachakra Pravartana
The turning of the wheel of dharma, the Buddha's first sermon at Sarnath.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Dharmasthiya and kantakashodhana
Courts for civil matters, and for criminal cases.
Dharmasutra
One of the earliest manuals of Hindu law, duty and custom, known as dharma.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Dravyavana and hastivana
Material forests giving timber and metals, and elephant forests.
Dukkha
Suffering or unsatisfactoriness, the first Noble Truth.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Ekarat
The sole sovereign, the title Mahapadma Nanda took.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Epigraphy
The study of inscriptions: writing engraved on durable material such as stone, pillars, copper plates, temple walls, caves and seals.
Faience
An artificial paste of ground quartz, glazed and fired to a glassy blue or green finish, used for beads, bangles and small figurines; not a natural stone.
Family Books
Mandalas 2 to 7 of the Rigveda, the oldest core, associated with the priestly families of Vishvamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadvaja and Vasistha.
Food producing economy
Producing food through farming and animal domestication, which began in the Neolithic.
Gana sangha
A republic like, oligarchic polity, such as the Vajji confederacy of eight clans and the Mallas.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Gotra
Literally the place where the whole clan's cattle were kept; later, descent from a common ancestor.
Grihyasutra
A text giving detailed guidelines on Vedic domestic rituals for householders.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Hellenistic
Of Greek history, art and culture, as in the Hellenistic zones left in Afghanistan, Gandhara and northwest Pakistan.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Hindush
The province connected with India in Achaemenid usage, from Sindhu, the Indus.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Historiography
The way history is written: who writes it, what questions they ask, which sources they prioritise and what interpretation they produce.
Hydaspes
The Greek name of the Jhelum, where Porus fought Alexander in 326 BCE.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Janapada
Literally the foothold of a people, or the territory of a tribe or people: the shift from tribal identity to territorial political units.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Jataka
A story of a previous birth of the Buddha.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Jiva and ajiva
The soul or living substance, and non living substance, the central Jain distinction.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Karma
Action and its moral and spiritual consequence; in Jainism, a material bondage on the soul.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Lapis lazuli
A deep blue semiprecious stone, obtained from Afghanistan, whose presence at Harappan sites is evidence of long distance trade.
Lost wax casting
A method of casting metal in which a wax model is coated in clay, the wax melted out and molten metal poured into the hollow left behind, used for the bronze Dancing Girl.
Madhyama pratipad
The Middle Path, rejecting both luxury and extreme asceticism.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Mahabhinishkramana
The Great Renunciation, the Buddha's leaving of worldly life.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Mahajanapada
A great janapada, a large territorial state; by the sixth century BCE some janapadas had grown into them, and the Anguttara Nikaya lists sixteen.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Mahaparinirvana
The death of the Buddha, at Kushinagara.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Mahashilakantaka
An engine to throw big stones, of which Ajatashatru is the presumed inventor.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Megaliths
Graves encircled by big stones and mostly located outside the settlement area, from which the Megalithic people of the peninsula are known.
Meluhha
A name in Mesopotamian records, often identified with the Harappan region.
Moksha
Liberation from the cycle of birth and death; in Jainism, the soul's liberation from karmic bondage.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Nastika
A school that does not accept the authority of the Vedas; it does not simply mean atheist.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Nigama
A market town or commercial settlement.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Nikaya
A book of the Buddhist Pitakas, many written in Pali; the Sutta Pitaka contains five.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Nirvana
The extinction of craving; liberation from suffering and rebirth.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Niyati
Absolute determinism, the Ajivika belief that everything is predetermined.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Northern Black Polished Ware
NBPW: a fine, glossy pottery associated with urban growth, the second urbanisation and urban elite culture.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisationTheme 1: Prehistory
Numismatics
The study of coins, a major source especially for political and economic history.
Painted Grey Ware
Fine grey pottery painted with black geometric patterns, about 1200 to 600 BCE, found in northwestern India and the Gangetic plain; it often overlaps with the early Vedic period.
Pana and mashaka
The silver punch marked coin with peacock, hill and crescent, and the copper coin.
Pana or karshapana
An early unit of currency, or coin.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Pativedaka
A special reporter who kept the king informed of public opinion, with the pulisani.
Patricide
The killing of one's father, as Ajatashatru killed Bimbisara, a rare case in ancient India.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Prasasti
A eulogistic inscription that glorifies a ruler, useful but given to exaggeration.
Pratimoksha
A list of transgressions, and the atonement for them, in the Vinaya Pitaka.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Pratityasamutpada
Dependent origination: everything arises in dependence on causes and conditions.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Pratyaksha
Direct perception, for Charvaka the main valid source of knowledge.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Prehistory
The period of the human past for which there are no written records, known mainly through archaeology.
Presentism
Judging the past only by present political concerns.
Protohistory
A period for which writing exists but is not fully understood or deciphered, such as the Harappan civilisation.
Punch marked coins
Early coins marked with symbols punched onto metal; they show monetisation, trade and an exchange economy.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Purusha Sukta
A hymn of the tenth Mandala describing the cosmic being Purusha, from whose sacrifice the world and the four varnas emerged.
Rajan
The Early Vedic tribal leader, not yet a territorial monarch; hereditary but not absolute.
Rathamusala
A scythed or maced chariot, of which Ajatashatru is the presumed inventor.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Rita
The order of the universe, of the sacrifice, and the moral order that people should follow.
Samsara
The cycle of birth, death and rebirth.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Sanstha and sanchara
Stationary spies posted in one region, and wandering spies.
Sapta Sindhu
The land of seven rivers, the Rigveda's name for the Early Vedic region, mostly modern Punjab and Sindh.
Saptanga rajya
The Arthashastra's state of seven limbs: svami, amatya, janapada, durga, kosha, danda and mitra.
Satrap
A governor of a province of the Persian Empire; Alexander also reinstated Porus as satrap.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Satrapy
A province of the Persian Empire governed by a satrap; Gandhara became one under Darius I.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Second urbanisation
The return of towns and cities in the Ganga valley and beyond, about 600 to 300 BCE, after the Harappan cities.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Shadgunya
The six policies of the vijigishu: sandhi, vigraha, asana, yana, samshraya and dvaidhibhava.
Shramana
A renunciant or wandering seeker outside the orthodox Vedic sacrificial order.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developmentsTheme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Shreni
A guild or association of craftsmen or merchants.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Shruti
Literally 'that which has been heard': the status of the Vedas, thought to embody an eternal, self existent truth realised by the rishis.
Shunyanivesha
Settling unoccupied land with new villages of 100 to 500 families, mostly Shudras.
Smriti
Literally 'remembered': a category of texts different from shruti, including the Vedanga, Puranas, epics, Dharmashastra and Nitishastra.
Soak pit
A covered pit into which household waste water drained and soaked away into the ground, part of the Harappan drainage arrangement.
Source
Any material from which we learn about the past.
Steatite
A soft, easily carved stone, also called soapstone, which hardens when fired, used by the Harappans for seals and beads.
Syadvada
The Jain doctrine of conditioned predication: truth seen from a standpoint.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Tanha
Craving, also trishna, the cause of suffering in the second Noble Truth.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Tantra and avapa
Internal administration and inter state relations, two subjects of the Arthashastra.
Therigatha
Songs of Buddhist nuns, describing women's experience of renunciation; the Theragatha holds the songs of monks.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Tirthankara
A ford maker, one who shows the crossing over the river of worldly existence; there are 24 in each major cycle of time.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Upanayana
The initiation ceremony allowed to the top three varnas, who were called dvija, twice born.
Upanishad
Philosophical teachings stressing knowledge, the self (Atman) and ultimate reality (Brahman).
Vajapeya
A chariot race in which the royal chariot was made to win against the king's kinsmen.
Varna
Literally colour: a broad social distinction in the Early Vedic age that became formal, hierarchical and linked with ritual status in the Later Vedic age.
Vedanga
Literally the limbs of a Veda: supplementary texts on phonetics, metre, grammar, etymology, ritual and astronomy for its recitation, use and understanding.
Vedanta
The Upanishads, as the concluding part of Vedic literature; later also one of the six astika schools.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Vijigishu
The would be conqueror, from whose standpoint the Arthashastra argues.
Yajamana
The sacrificer, the one on whose behalf a sacrifice was performed; the handout writes jajmana.