The Rajput kingdoms, 900 to 1200 CE

Chand Bardai's Prithviraj Raso, on Prithviraj III, is literary rather than strictly historical, and its twelfth century date is debated.
It is central to the bardic tradition, in which the court bards, the charans and bhats, kept the heroic poetry of Rajput warriors.
The Agnikula legend is itself a source: a twelfth century literary creation that unified diverse clans under one sacred origin.
Al Biruni's Kitab ul Hind, about 1017 to 1030, the most comprehensive Arab account, is a work of comparative scholarship.
The Paramara Bhoja wrote the Samarangana Sutradhara on architecture and the Rajamartanda on yoga.
The Khajuraho temples, the Modhera Sun temple and the Dilwara temples are the monuments of Chandella and Solanki patronage.

The Paramaras Munja and Bhoja ruled Malwa, and Dhanga was the greatest Chandella.
The Chahamanas Vigraharaja IV and Prithviraj III took Delhi and fought at Tarain, and Chand Bardai sang of Prithviraj.
The Solanki Bhima I reigned when Somnath was sacked, and Kumarapala turned to Jainism under Hemachandra.
Jayachandra was the last significant Gahadavala.
The invaders were Mahmud of Ghazni and Muhammad Ghori, whose deputy Qutb ud din Aibak took Delhi.

Munja
king
Paramara, about 974 to 995 CE; campaigned against the Western Chalukyas; a poet; died in battle.
Bhoja
king
Paramara, about 1010 to 1055 CE; wrote the Samarangana Sutradhara and the Rajamartanda; founded the Bhojashala.
Dhanga
king
Chandella, about 950 to 1008 CE; temple builder; fought off Mahmud of Ghazni's raids.
Chandravarman
king
Legendary founder of the Chandellas, son of Hemavati and the Moon god.
Hemavati
legend
The Brahmin girl of the Chandella origin legend.
Vigraharaja IV
king
Chahamana, about 1150 to 1164 CE; captured Delhi; a dramatist.
Prithviraj III
king; also Prithviraj Chauhan
Prithviraj Chauhan, about 1177 to 1192 CE; won the first battle of Tarain and lost the second.
Bhima I
king
Solanki king when Mahmud of Ghazni sacked Somnath in 1025; the Modhera Sun temple is of his reign.
Kumarapala
king
Solanki, about 1143 to 1172 CE; converted to Jainism under Hemachandra.
Hemachandra
scholar
The Jain scholar under whom Kumarapala converted.
Jayachandra
king
The last significant Gahadavala; killed by Muhammad Ghori at Chandawar in 1194.
Muhammad Ghori
king
Lost the first battle of Tarain in 1191 and won the second in 1192.
Qutb ud din Aibak
king
Ghori's deputy after Delhi fell; the Sultanate followed in 1206.

Rajput origins are among the most debated questions of the period, with political as well as historical dimensions.
The indigenous Kshatriya theory derives the Rajputs from ancient Kshatriya clans of the Puranas, on their own genealogical claims.
The foreign origin theory derives some clans from Hunas, Gurjaras or Shakas absorbed into the Kshatriya varna.
The mixed origin theory, now most accepted, gives different clans different origins, some indigenous, some assimilated, some rising local families.
The Agnikula legend, of four clans born from a fire pit at Mount Abu, is a twelfth century literary creation.
Its four clans are the Pratiharas, Paramaras, Chaulukyas and Chahamanas; the Chandellas claimed lunar descent.

Each clan had an origin myth, a clan goddess, the kula devi, and a genealogy from the Sun, Suryavanshi, or the Moon, Chandravanshi.
Court bards, the charans and bhats, composed and kept the heroic poetry of Rajput warriors.
Death in battle was honoured and flight was the ultimate shame.
When defeat was certain came the jauhar of the women, then the saka, the last charge of the men in saffron.
A paramount king ruled over samantas and local chiefs, each owing service and tribute, the most developed form of the feudal tendency.
Incessant internal warfare over land, marriage, tribute and succession weakened their resistance to the Ghaznavid and Ghurid invasions.

The erotic panels of Khajuraho have several readings: the Tantric idea of pleasure as cosmic energy, or a guard against evil spirits.
They may show the worldly pleasures a devotee leaves at the threshold, and are in any case a small fraction of the sculpture.

Paramaras of Malwa
about 800 to 1305 CE
- Capital Dhara, modern Dhar; Munja, about 974 to 995, fought the Western Chalukyas and died in battle.
- Bhoja, about 1010 to 1055, wrote the Samarangana Sutradhara on architecture and the Rajamartanda on yoga.
- He founded the Bhojashala at Dhara, and the Khalji invasion ended the dynasty in 1305.
Chandellas of Bundelkhand
about 831 to 1315 CE
- Capitals at Khajuraho, then Mahoba; Dhanga, about 950 to 1008, fought off Mahmud's raids successfully.
- The Khajuraho temples, 85 originally and 25 surviving, honour Shiva, Vishnu and the Tirthankaras; the Kandariya Mahadeva is the greatest.
- Legend makes Chandravarman the son of the Brahmin girl Hemavati and the Moon god.
Chahamanas of Shakambhari
7th century to 1192 CE
- From Shakambhari near Sambhar lake they spread to Ajmer and Delhi.
- Vigraharaja IV, about 1150 to 1164, captured Delhi and was a dramatist himself.
- Prithviraj III, about 1177 to 1192, won the first battle of Tarain and lost the second.
Chaulukyas of Gujarat
about 940 to 1244 CE
- Also called the Solankis, they ruled Gujarat and Kathiawar from Anhilwara, modern Patan.
- Bhima I reigned when Mahmud of Ghazni sacked Somnath in 1025.
- Kumarapala turned to Jainism under Hemachandra, and the Dilwara and Modhera temples are Solanki work.
Gahadavalas of Kanauj
about 1089 to 1194 CE
- Jayachandra, the last significant ruler, was killed by Muhammad Ghori at Chandawar in 1194.
Tomaras of Delhi
8th to 12th century
- They are credited with founding Dhillika, early Delhi, and building Lal Kot, and were displaced by the Chahamanas.

Six Rajput dynasties

Dynasty	Territory and capital	Period	Key rulers
Paramaras	Malwa; Dhara	About 800 to 1305 CE	Munja; Bhoja
Chandellas	Bundelkhand; Khajuraho, then Mahoba	About 831 to 1315 CE	Dhanga
Chahamanas	Shakambhari; then Ajmer and Delhi	7th century to 1192 CE	Vigraharaja IV; Prithviraj III
Chaulukyas	Gujarat and Kathiawar; Anhilwara	About 940 to 1244 CE	Bhima I; Kumarapala
Gahadavalas	Kanauj and the middle Ganga plain	About 1089 to 1194 CE	Jayachandra
Tomaras	The Delhi region	8th to 12th century	Founders of Dhillika and Lal Kot

Six houses held the north and west between the Pratiharas and the Sultanate.Source: Theme 12 handout

At the first battle of Tarain, 1191, Prithviraj III defeated Muhammad Ghori, who escaped wounded.
The Rajputs treated it as a frontier repulse, not a strategic threat, and did not pursue.
In 1192 Ghori returned with mounted archers, used feigned retreat against the heavier Rajput cavalry, and won; Prithviraj was captured and killed.
North India lay open, Delhi fell, Qutb ud din Aibak became Ghori's deputy, and the Delhi Sultanate followed in 1206.
The Rajputs lost not for want of courage: clan rivalry meant the invasion was met piecemeal.
The heavy Rajput charge was slower than Ghurid mounted archery, there was no standing army, only feudal levies, and victory bred complacency.

The battles of Tarain

Battle	Date	Outcome
First Tarain	1191 CE	Prithviraj III defeated Muhammad Ghori, who escaped wounded; no pursuit
Second Tarain	1192 CE	Ghori's mounted archers and feigned retreat won; Prithviraj captured and killed
Consequence	1192 onward	North India open to Ghurid conquest; Aibak Ghori's deputy; the Sultanate in 1206

A victory not followed up, then a defeat that opened the north.Source: Theme 12 handout

From 900 to the Sultanate

About 950 to 1008
Dhanga, the greatest Chandella, fights off Mahmud's raids
About 974 to 995
Munja of the Paramaras
997 to 1030
Mahmud of Ghazni's raids
About 1010 to 1055
Bhoja of the Paramaras; Dhara sacked by Mahmud in 1010
1025
Mahmud sacks Somnath under the Solanki Bhima I
About 1143 to 1172
Kumarapala turns to Jainism under Hemachandra
About 1150 to 1164
Vigraharaja IV captures Delhi
1191
First Tarain: Prithviraj III defeats Muhammad Ghori
1192
Second Tarain: Ghori wins; Prithviraj killed
1194
Chandawar: Jayachandra killed by Ghori
1206
The Delhi Sultanate

Three centuries of Rajput kingdoms, ending in the Sultanate.Source: Theme 12 handout

The Kandariya Mahadeva, Khajuraho
The greatest survivor of the Chandella temples, the Nagara style at its most elaborate.
Taru23, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons
A celestial figure from Khajuraho
The Khajuraho sculpture is dominated by celestial beings, warriors, domestic scenes and philosophical figures.
Daderot, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
The Sun temple, Modhera
Built under the Solanki Bhima I, about 1026.
Bernard Gagnon, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons
The Surya Kund, Modhera
The stepped tank of the Modhera Sun temple.
Bernard Gagnon, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons
Inside the Vimala Vasahi, Dilwara
The finest marble Jain temples, of Solanki and Paramara patronage; the Vimala Vasahi of 1031 is the oldest.
Rijksmuseum, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons
The walls of Lal Kot, Delhi
The Tomaras are credited with founding Dhillika, early Delhi, and building Lal Kot.
Mychel21, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Rajput: The warrior clans that held north and west India from about 900 to 1200 CE.
Kula devi: The clan goddess of a Rajput clan.
Suryavanshi: Claiming descent from the Sun.
Chandravanshi: Claiming descent from the Moon, as the Chandellas did.
Charan and bhat: The court bards who composed and kept Rajput heroic poetry.
Bhojashala: Bhoja's school of learning at Dhara.

Where did the Rajputs come from?

Indigenous Kshatriyas

They descend from ancient Kshatriya clans of the Puranas, on their own genealogical claims.

Foreign origin

Some clans descend from Hunas, Gurjaras or Shakas absorbed into the Kshatriya varna.

Mixed origin

Different clans had different origins: indigenous, assimilated, or rising local families.

The mixed origin theory is now most accepted, and the Agnikula legend is a twelfth century creation.

Prelims

Try each before opening the answer; every question is also on the Prelims PYQs pages.

2023 · Q45

Consider the following dynasties:

1.Hoysala
2.Gahadavala
3.Kakatiya
4.Yadava.

How many of the above dynasties established their kingdoms in early eighth century AD?

(a)Only one
(b)Only two
(c)Only three
(d)NoneUPSC key

Show answer and explanation

None of the four belongs to the early eighth century. The Hoysalas emerged as hill chiefs in the Western Ghats and became a significant power only from the late eleventh century under Vishnuvardhana, with their capital at Dwarasamudra. The Gahadavalas of Kannauj and Varanasi rose in the late eleventh century under Chandradeva and ended with Jayachandra's defeat in 1194. The Kakatiyas of Warangal became independent of the Western Chalukyas in the twelfth century. The Yadavas or Seunas of Devagiri likewise asserted independence in the twelfth century as Chalukya power collapsed. All four are therefore products of the eleventh and twelfth century political reordering of the peninsula and the Ganga valley, not of the eighth century, which belongs to the Pratihara, Pala, Rashtrakuta and Pallava era. Hence (d).

Difficult · Static · Ancient and Medieval History · Early Medieval and South India

2022 · Q92

Consider the following pairs:

1.Nannuka - Chandela
2.Jayashakti - Paramara
3.Nagabhata II - Gurjara-Pratihara
4.Bhoja - Rashtrakuta.

How many pairs given above are correctly matched?

(a)Only one pair
(b)Only two pairsUPSC key
(c)Only three pairs
(d)All four pairs

Show answer and explanation

Pair 1 is correctly matched. Nannuka was the founder of the Chandela line in Jejakabhukti, the Bundelkhand region whose later rulers raised the temples at Khajuraho.
Pair 2 is incorrectly matched. Jayashakti was himself a Chandela, one of the early rulers of that house whose name, with his brother Vijayashakti, is associated with the consolidation of Chandela power, and he had no connection with the Paramaras of Malwa.
Pair 3 is correctly matched. Nagabhata II was a Gurjara Pratihara ruler, the son of Vatsaraja, who took Kanauj and made it the Pratihara capital in the course of the tripartite struggle with the Palas and the Rashtrakutas.
Pair 4 is incorrectly matched. The Bhoja best known to Indian history is the Paramara king of Dhar, celebrated as scholar and patron, and the name also belongs to Mihira Bhoja of the Gurjara Pratiharas; neither line is Rashtrakuta. Exactly two pairs are correct, giving (b). The item is difficult because the question sets the Chandela, Paramara, Pratihara and Rashtrakuta houses against one another and swaps names between them, so nothing short of secure knowledge of each dynasty's rulers will serve.

Difficult · Static · Ancient and Medieval History · Early Medieval and South India

2015 · Q35

Consider the following pairs: Medieval Indian State / Present Region.

1.Champaka : Central India
2.Durgara : Jammu
3.Kuluta : Malabar.

Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?

(a)1 and 2
(b)2 onlyUPSC key
(c)1 and 3
(d)3 only

Show answer and explanation

Pair 1 is incorrect. Champaka is the old name of Chamba in the western Himalaya, in present day Himachal Pradesh, founded in the tenth century by Raja Sahil Varman and named for his daughter Champavati; it is not in Central India.
Pair 2 is correct. Durgara is the early name of the Dogra country around Jammu, the term Dogra deriving from it, and it appears in inscriptions and in Kalhana's Rajatarangini as a hill state on the Chenab.
Pair 3 is incorrect. Kuluta is the Kullu valley, again in Himachal Pradesh, a name known from the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta and from Varahamihira; Malabar is the Kerala coast. The official answer (b) follows. Elimination route: recognising either Champaka as Chamba or Kuluta as Kullu removes three options and leaves only (b), and the two names are close enough to their modern forms for a candidate with a feel for Sanskritic place names to make the connection. Without that, the item is unanswerable from standard preparation, which is what places it at the difficult end.

Difficult · Static · Ancient and Medieval History · Early Medieval and South India

Not covered in the theme; see the answer.

Mains

General Studies Paper 1; every question is also on the Mains PYQs pages.

2025 · Q310 marks150 words
'The sculptors filled the Chandella artform with resilient vigor and breadth of life.' Elucidate.